Reforming Rwanda Essay - 1157 Words

Reforming Rwanda Reforming Rwanda is not an easy task and cannot be accomplished overnight. The need for reform is unavoidable in Rwanda. Throughout this country’s history there have been many cases of civil unrest and violence. Perhaps the most recognized event in Rwanda was the genocide of 1994. The issues leading up to the killings, the genocide itself, and the changes made after are all important to Rwanda’s future and its ability to reform. Rwanda’s Civil War began on October 2, 1990 and greatly contributed to the country’s decline into violence and mass murder. The war was between the government of the current president, Juvà ©nal Habyarimana and the Rwanda Patriotic Front(RPF). The war was allegedly ended on August 4, 1993 when†¦show more content†¦Unfortunately all efforts towards peace were lost with the assassination of Habyarimana. Ethnic strife was also a major contributor towards the genocide. The two major social divisions were the Tutsi and Hutu. In Rwanda’s early history the Hutu were considered second class below the Tutsi. The Tutsi were generally the rulers and Hutus could only reach Tutsi status by success or marriage (Taylor 17). However later in history the Hutus became more favored and powerful. To ensure power would remain with the Hutus, extremists created the Hutu Power. The Hutu Power was an ideology practiced by Hutu radicals. It established the thought of Tutsis as invaders and suppressors. The Hutus wanted a â€Å"pure† Rwanda, free from Tutsi people and their influence. While peace negotiations were taking place after the Rwanda Civil War, radical Hutus were claiming that Habyarimana, the president, was being persuaded by the Tutsi and non-radical Hutus (Jones 146). After his assassination, the Hutu extremists organized mobs to kill a mass number of people, which became known as the Rwanda Genocide. The Rwanda Genocide happened between April and June of 1994. There was an estima ted 800,000 killed. The majority of people killed were the Tutsi. The genocide was not caused by just one person or one group of people, but Hutu extremists certainly supported the mass killings of their rivals, the Tutsi. In some cases, moderate Hutus were forced to kill Tutsis by theShow MoreRelatedThe Genocide in Rwanda 1001 Words   |  5 PagesPaul Kagame, the President of Rwanda, once quoted that, â€Å"When we are unified, working together, no challenge is insurmountable† (Arnlaugsdottir). His quote holds meaning and truth as within the past twenty years, Rwanda has worked miraculously to rebuild and reunite the country that was left disheveled by social conflict and genocide. There are many factors that have contributed to the reconstruction of Rwanda, including international assistance, gacaca courts and International Criminal TribunalRead MoreConflict Is A Old As Mankind1230 Words   |  5 PagesAugust with the signing of the Arusha Accords to create a power shari ng government. Rwanda: A brief history of the country  · In the early 1990s,Rwanda was a small country with a dominant agricultural economy and it had one of the highest population densities in Africa. Around 85 percent of its population is Hutu and the rest is Tutsi with a small number of Twa, a Pygmy group who were the original inhabitants of Rwanda. Before the colonial era Tutsis generally occupied the higher strata and Hutus occupiedRead MoreThe End Of The Cold War1435 Words   |  6 Pagescolonialism. Nevertheless, instead of taking their historical responsibility, only the private interests motivate those countries to participate in peacekeeping. In 1994, to preserve its interests in Rwanda, Belgium had the largest contingent in the UNAMIR (United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda). However, just after ten Belgian peacekeepers were killed on April 7, Belgium began to petition for their complete withdrawal. After this abandonment, no country wanted to lead the mission (Maritz,Read MoreThe Tactics Of Combat Civil Wars And In still Peace1668 Words   |  7 Pagesmonitoring, protecting and delivering humanitarian aid, demobilizing and retraining troops, reforming police forces, protecting civilians, reforming legal systems, assisting in economic reconstruction, and sometimes administering the entire state until a new government can take over. In other words, after civil wars, peacekeepers are often charged not only with military monitoring duties, but with reforming the essential institutions of the state† (Peacekeeping, Peace Enforcement, and UN Reform LiseRead MoreTransformiing Healthcare Using Ehealth929 Words   |  4 Pagespromote health in the industry†¦it is many things. Beyond our borders, other countries are proving to be a step ahead in terms of e-health. They have openly accepted ICT in their health industries providing a strong foundation for e-health growth. Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania are good examples of countries that are already on the map for extensive e-health reforms. We are lagging due to the many bureaucracies involved in transforming our industries. The reluctance to adopt change also weighs downRead MorePeace Agreement And Peace Agreements1139 Words   |  5 Pages education, and program like social security. Encouraging entrepreneurial initiative will bring in new business to the people, which would create more jobs. This would make a cycle to boost. Peacebuidling show the scholars the bigger picture of reforming a country to a potential. There are countries all over the world that can have a better government if they would have gone with the peacebuilding method. Peacebuilding is an attempt after peace negotiations have not workout or imposed to addressRead MoreThe Process of Reforming the United Nations2045 Words   |  9 PagesThe process of reforming the United Nations (UN) has been a highly debatable issue among the international community. Since the initial signing of the UN Charter in 1945, the world has changed dramatically as the UN is trying to regulate a forum that assesses and deals with global issues while also struggling to unite all 193 member states of the UN when some states have been seen to have conflicting ideas and personal agendas (Teng, 2003, pp. 2-3). This essay is targeted to highlight what I feelRead MoreThe Process of Reforming the United Nations1843 Words   |  8 PagesThe process of reforming the United Nations (UN) has been a highly debated issue among members of the international community. Since the initial signing of the UN Charter in 1945, the world has changed dramatically. The UN is trying to regulate a forum that assesses and deals with global issues while also struggling to unite all 193 member states, some of whom have been seen to have conflicting ideas and individual agendas (Teng, 2003, pp. 2-3). This essay highlights what I feel are the most pressingRead MoreThe Challenges Of Stereotypes Within Africa1513 Words   |  7 Pagespolitically. Keim proposes that this type of misconception derives somewhat from the media. Often articles focus on the fears and violence, rather than the positive aspects regarding Africa. Keim states, â€Å"†¦early press reports on the 1994-1995 civil war in Rwanda frequently called it a tribal war. Media often fails to recognize cultural similarities and difference, only taking time mislabel and follow the nearest headline regarding â€Å"troubles in Africa†. Because of this, the outside world â€Å"Westerners†, oftenRead MoreThe Reform Of The United Nations Essay2044 Words   |  9 Pagesto veto especially among the perman ent members. In the past decade, there were two occasions when criminal tribunals were set up to try criminals for crimes against humanity, one after the war in Bosnia and the other after the civil war in Rwanda. Both these tribunals have helped persuade the International community to propose for the creation of a permanent Criminal Court. Because the United Nations has begun to take up a more prominent role in global affairs the increasing number of

Essay on How Alcohol Effects Teenagers - 2113 Words

Alcohol has many effects on the body, especially the teenage body. Alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are not only adult problems -- they also affect a significant number of adolescents and young adults between the ages of 12 and 20, even though drinking under the age of 21 is illegal (Dimeff 204). Alcohol is created when grains, fruits, or vegetables are fermented. Fermentation is a process that uses yeast or bacteria to change the sugars in the food into alcohol. Fermentation is used to produce many necessary items - everything from cheese to medications. Alcohol has different forms and can be used as a cleaner, an antiseptic, or a sedative. When people drink alcohol, its absorbed into their bloodstream. From there, it affects†¦show more content†¦The average age at which Americans begin drinking regularly is 15.9 years old. According to research by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, adolescents who begin drinking before age 15 are four times more likely to develop alcohol dependence than those who begin drinking at age 21. An early age of drinking onset is also associated with alcohol-related violence not only among persons under age 21 but among adults as well. It has been 5 estimated that over three million teenagers are out-and-out alcoholics. Several million more have a serious drinking problem that they cannot manage on their own (Sales 217-221). The three leading causes of death for 15- to 24-year-olds are automobile crashes, homicides and suicides -- alcohol is a leading factor in all three. While drinking may be a singular problem behavior for some, research suggests that for others it may be an expression of general adolescent turmoil that includes other problem behaviors and that these behaviors are linked to unconventionality, impulsiveness, and sensation seeking (Ruben 335). Binge drinking, often beginning around age 13, tends to increase during adolescence, peak in young adulthood (ages 18-22), then gradually decrease. Individuals who increase their binge drinking from age 18 to 24 and those who consistently binge drink at least once a week during this period may have problems attaining the goals typical of the transition fromShow MoreRelated Teenage Alcohol Abuse Essay726 Words   |  3 Pagesend of teenagers drinking before they are allowed to according to law? In today’s society teenagers walk around as if they know exactly what is good for them, as if they are invincible. Take a look at the number of crashes caused every year by teenage under-aged drinkers and how alcohol effects their future and see how bold of a word invincibility is. Issues that need to be considered when it comes to alcohol are the medical conditions it gives people, how alcohol effects each teenagers futureRead MoreFactors That Influence Teenagers On Alcohol And Ef fects1570 Words   |  7 PagesFactors that influence Teenagers in alcohol and Effects Introduction The teenage years are the time of searching ourselves, engaging in different activities, doing something to fit to our peers and trying to form what we want to be. They are usually under the pressure on the school activities and performance. Sometimes, pressure from their parents who has big expectations from them is the reason why they engaged alcohol. In the present, numerous teenagers are already engaging alcohol consumption. DespiteRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol And Teen Drinking1069 Words   |  5 Pages(2), teenage drinking is widespread, and teenagers believe that it is acceptable. But, teenagers’ bodies are still developing. They fail to realize that consuming alcohol places them in danger  for numerous issues.   Consuming alcohol is more widespread among teenagers than most realize. Alcohol and Teen Drinking (1) reports that three-fourths of seniors,  a little over two-thirds of Sophomores, and two out of five 8th graders have experimented with alcohol. With rising statistical information availableRead MoreTeenage Alcohol Abuse1465 Words   |  6 PagesAlcohol Abuse in Teenagers Underage alcohol abuse is a growing problem in the lives of teenagers today. Almost 80% of high school students have tried alcohol (Dowshen). To effectively combat this growing epidemic, teens need to understand the effects of consuming alcohol, and adults need to recognize the problem and effectively prevent alcohol abuse. Though many teenagers do not realize it, alcohol can significantly affect a teen’s life, including short-term impacts on the teen’s popularity andRead MoreEssay on Teenage Drinking In America920 Words   |  4 Pages Teenagers are America’s greatest natural resource, and they need to be protected from some of the evils that lurk in the world. A subject that needs special attention is the abuse of alcohol by teens. Statistics show that there is a problem currently between teens and alcohol. There are many causes of teenage drinking and effects that prove that drinking is an important issue that needs to be dealt with to preserve America n teenagers. Teenage drinking will become worse of a problem if it continuesRead MoreDrunk Driving Essay examples863 Words   |  4 PagesNowadays, we can easily purchase alcohol everywhere. There are a lot of retail shops, bars, restaurants for us to buy alcohol. In the developing countries as Vietnam and China, people can purchase alcohol at any age. That’s the opportunity for the industry of alcohol develops and contribute the nation’s income. However, the negative effect of alcohol to security very seriously and it kills the young generations if the government doesn’t offer tough measures . While I was in Vietnam, I often wentRead MoreIs Underage Drinking Not Only Effect Their Live?1650 Words   |  7 Pages Actually underage drinking not only effect their live, but also affect teenager’s health. Research has shown that about 40% of teens drinking of 14-19 degree is achieved the level of short-term risk of harm. So what harm does alcohol do to your body? First of all, alcohol can poison the liver, cause the liver function damage. Excessive drinking consumption increased the burden on the liver. Mainly depends on the oxidative decomposition, damaged liver cell degeneration. Eventually lead to cirrhosisRead MoreTeenagers and Alcohol1584 Words   |  6 PagesSome people say yes because teenagers are responsible for their actions and should be able to have a little more leniency. Others say no, because teenagers are more likely to get into trouble with alcohol use and possible accidents due to drinking and driving. However a person looks at this argument, teenag ers should be able to make their own decisions in life and learn from their mistakes. People generally know that teenagers will find many ways to get alcohol. Teenagers find way to push the law requiringRead More The Problem of Teen Alcoholism in the United States Essay1102 Words   |  5 Pagesmay not in particular. Alcohol use among teenagers is a serious problem and is responsible for death and injury in automobile accidents, physical and emotional disability, deterioration of academic performances, aggressive behavior that causes a number of other sociological problems in families and among friends. It is also the primary cause of criminal behavior and a leading cause of broken marriages. As we know its a broad topic therefore Ill look at the role that alcohol plays in the society andRead MoreA Major Problem That Teenagers Come Across931 Words   |  4 PagesTeenagers are surrounded daily by different issues and problems. Some know how to deal with them; others create bigger problems for themselves. A problem that a teenager could come across can vary in its e xtremity. A major problem, that forms from other problems, is drug and alcohol abuse/use. Drug and alcohol abuse has become a huge problem among teenagers. It can start for multiple reasons. Every person has a different reason. The most common reasons or excuses for teenagers are boredom

Earthworm Biodiversity in an Arid Region of Rajasthan, India Free Essays

Among the soil fauna, earthworms have an important role to improve soil texture. The soil texture plays an important role in water holding capacity. Earthworms have an ability to enhance soil characteristics. We will write a custom essay sample on Earthworm Biodiversity in an Arid Region of Rajasthan, India or any similar topic only for you Order Now It contributes to the breakdown of organic matter and release plant nutrients (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996). Earthworms are also considered as useful indicator of the health of soil ecosystem (Edwards and Bohlen, 1992) as to their role in soil fertility through fragmentation and mixed up the soil with mineral particle, enhancing microbial activity to breakdown plant organic matter. The contribution of earthworms in soil turnover, structure formation and serve as a fertility enhancer in different way. Earthworms are useful in land improvement and organic waste management (Edwards and Baker, 1992; Lavelle and Martin, 1992; Johnson, 1997; Villenave et al. , 1999). The distribution and population density of various earthworm species have been correlated with soil type and agriculture land use (Haynes et al. , 2003; Sbrina et al. , 2009). The biodiversity of earthworms is influenced by physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and climatic conditions of habitats. Earthworm’s biodiversity is directly affected by soil characteristics (Edwards and Lofty, 1977). These community influencing factors are soil pH, organic matter, nitrogen, C/N ratio, soil moisture and soil texture. Biodiversity is counted as human resources (Heywood, 1996). Recently, many biologists studied the biodiversity and distribution of earthworms in the different parts of the world (Blakemore, 2000, 2002, 2003; Change and Chen, 2004,2005; Blakemore et al. ,2006; Sautter et al. , 2006; Ghafoor et al. , 2008). Present study was done in Bikaner district, which is located in Thar desert of Rajasthan ranging 28. 01 ° N 73. 19 ° E. . The average rain fall in this area is 10† to 15† only. Therefore, climatic conditions are adverse for organisms. Most of its area is irrigated with tube wells and Indira Gandhi canal. Due to adverse conditions from a long period, there is still a few information about biodiversity and habitats. The present study will revealed new basic information for further research on earthworms and its ecology and application of earthworms in agriculture sector. How to cite Earthworm Biodiversity in an Arid Region of Rajasthan, India, Papers

Effects of Typhoon free essay sample

The typhoon affected living creatures and properties. People, animals, and plants can be killed during typhoon. First, flooding can be the reasons for humans to get drown because of a high level of water. The bad weather can also give them sickness such as fever, common cold and malaria, which is a serious infectious disease spread by certain mosquitoes. A few of them suffered from trauma after the typhoon. Trauma is a type of damage to the mind that causes a person to be precisely afraid of something. For instance, a thunderstorm which is a sign of typhoon can cause someone to be frightened because of his or her typhoon experience. Then, animals get executed by the typhoon. When the small animals and food supplies disappear or get killed by the typhoon, it affects the larger animals for the reason that they can’t longer find enough food. Lastly, plant life can simply be swept away. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Typhoon or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Even trees cannot withstand the absolute force of a typhoon’s strength. All natural disasters have something to left when it was gone. Mostly, a typhoon can sweep away a farmland full of crops and it can cause mudslide. If it’s not meat from the animals, it is from the plants that we produce food. Unfortunately, crops are swept away after a strong hit of a typhoon. One effect of this is a shortage of food. If food shortage happened, the prices of food will get higher because of a lack of production. Finally, the strength of a wind and an unstoppable rain has the potential to create a mudslide. When mudslide occurs not only the house and buildings are buried. People who are inside their houses are in danger because they might get buried alive. A mudslide cause by a typhoon is very dangerous. It can happen rapidly that’s why a poor wouldn’t mind to save his personal belongings if mudslide happens. Tropical cyclones in the Philippines had effects: living creatures and properties. I have known that if these keep on going, death and property loss will increase in the Philippines.

Death Penalty Essays (1764 words) - Penology, Capital Punishment

Death Penalty There are four main reasons for punishment: rehabilitation (to return someone to a former status), reformation (to re-form or re-create an individual), deterrence (to deter others or to deter the person punished), and retribution (an eye for an eye). The death penalty is a punishment to a person in which the person is put to death for a very serious crime they have committed, usually when they take another person's life. Our state and federal legislators have created laws that specifically identify which crimes a person commits that can be punishable by the death penalty. The death penalty is seen as a deterrent to increasing and more serious crime. If members of the society know that if they commit serious crimes they could be put to death for it, they are less likely to commit these crimes. However, there is great disagreement in our society about whether it is a true deterrent to crime or not. When I think of the thousands of inhabitants of Death Rows in the prisons in this country...my reaction is: "What's taking us so long? Let's get that electrical current flowing. Drop those pebbles now!" Whenever I argue this with friends who have opposite views, they say that I don't have enough regard for the most marvelous of miracles - human life. Just the opposite: It's because I have so much regard for human life that I favor capital punishment. Murder is the most terrible crime there is. Anything less than the death penalty is an insult to the victim and society. It says...that we don't value the victim's life enough to punish the killer fully. Many abolition supporters quote, "the death penalty is not a deterrent." Many abolitionist also add there is NO deterrent for a murderer (there will always be a few individuals that are up for a challenge no matter what the consequences are for their crimes in my opinion). Since jail is neither a deterrent in essence, according to those that wish to abolish the death penalty, how long before "jail time" for murderers would be their next punishment to target for removal from our books. One argument states that the death penalty does not deter murder. Dismissing capital punishment on that basis requires us to eliminate all prisons as well because they do not seem to be any more effective in the deterrence of crime. Others say that states which do have the death penalty have higher crime rates than those that don't, that a more severe punishment only inspires more severe crimes. I must point out that every state in the union is different. These differences include the populations, number of cities, and yes, the crime rates. Strongly urbanized states are more likely to have higher crime rates than states that are more rural, such as those that lack capital punishment. The states that have capital punishment have it because of their high crime rate, not the other way around. Abolitionists claim that there are alternatives to the death penalty. They say that life in prison without parole serves just as well. Certainly, if you ignore all the murders criminals commit within prison when they kill prison guards and other inmates, and also when they kill decent citizens upon escape, like Dawud Mu'Min who was serving a 48-year sentence for the 1973 murder of a cab driver when he escaped a road work gang and stabbed to death a storekeeper named Gadys Nopwasky in a 1988 robbery that netted $4.00. Fortunately, there is now no chance of Mu'Min committing murder again. He was executed by the state of Virginia on November 14, 1997. Another flaw is that life imprisonment tends to deteriorate with the passing of time. Take the Moore case in New York State for example. In 1962, James Moore raped and strangled 14-year-old Pamela Moss. Her parents decided to spare Moore the death penalty on the condition that he be sentenced to life in prison without parole. Later on, thanks to a change in sentencing laws in 1982, James Moore is eligible for parole every two years! If Pamela's parents knew that they couldn't trust the state, Moore could have been executed long ago and they could have put the whole horrible incident behind them forever. Instead they have a nightmare to deal with biannually. I'll bet not a day goes by that they don't kick themselves for being foolish enough to trust the liberal sham that is life imprisonment and rehabilitation. (According to the US Department of Justice, the average prison sentence

Free Essays on What Makes A Political Theory A Classic

This is a review and analysis of the journal article â€Å"What Makes a Classic in Political Theory†, dated September 1973. In the beginning of the article the author mentions that there are a select few books that he believes are a measure of classics. Even the favored authors he lists are admittedly obscure in their rise to classic standing. He believes that classics are what you were taught as a student, yet it is a rather unsatisfactory reason. Levin suggest five criteria for which a book might be justified as a classic. Using these criteria he undoubtably believes that John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government is a political classic. The work was published in a defense of the 1688 Revolution. The fact that it is still on political students recommended reading leads to a particularly high philosophical quality, yet some do not agree. Levin touches on Locke’s Two Treatises as classic with the consideration of the five questions: 1. Philosophical quality. 2. Original content. 3. Influence on events or other political theorists. 4. The foremost example of a certain category of thought. 5. Extended relevancy beyond their own time of publication to the present, or even to provide judgments of universal application. He admits that there is a lack of originality but that can be associated with other great theorists. His influence is far outweighed by his reputation. He wrote for the people who were not as educated, helping him be more understandable. He concludes with the assessment that Locke relies on the timing of publication rather than his originality. The second part of the article by Michael Levin starts with the idea that Locke’s fame rest on the timing of his views and that he expressed them in a partly new form. So Locke’s ideas were only socially significant due to good timing. His reputation is what seems to catapult his Two Treatises into classic status because of previously written works by Locke on... Free Essays on What Makes A Political Theory A Classic Free Essays on What Makes A Political Theory A Classic This is a review and analysis of the journal article â€Å"What Makes a Classic in Political Theory†, dated September 1973. In the beginning of the article the author mentions that there are a select few books that he believes are a measure of classics. Even the favored authors he lists are admittedly obscure in their rise to classic standing. He believes that classics are what you were taught as a student, yet it is a rather unsatisfactory reason. Levin suggest five criteria for which a book might be justified as a classic. Using these criteria he undoubtably believes that John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government is a political classic. The work was published in a defense of the 1688 Revolution. The fact that it is still on political students recommended reading leads to a particularly high philosophical quality, yet some do not agree. Levin touches on Locke’s Two Treatises as classic with the consideration of the five questions: 1. Philosophical quality. 2. Original content. 3. Influence on events or other political theorists. 4. The foremost example of a certain category of thought. 5. Extended relevancy beyond their own time of publication to the present, or even to provide judgments of universal application. He admits that there is a lack of originality but that can be associated with other great theorists. His influence is far outweighed by his reputation. He wrote for the people who were not as educated, helping him be more understandable. He concludes with the assessment that Locke relies on the timing of publication rather than his originality. The second part of the article by Michael Levin starts with the idea that Locke’s fame rest on the timing of his views and that he expressed them in a partly new form. So Locke’s ideas were only socially significant due to good timing. His reputation is what seems to catapult his Two Treatises into classic status because of previously written works by Locke on...

The Pepsi Refresh Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Pepsi Refresh Project - Research Paper Example Social media marketing entails using these social media platforms for direct marketing. Corporate blogs have become an important medium for enhancing communication with the internal and external customers (Cox, Martinez & Quinlan, 2008). Viral transfer of messages through corporate blogs reduces advertising costs while disseminating new about products and services (Scammel, 2006). The social media, being interactive in nature, has enabled customer involvement in content creation and value generation, which helps businesses to understand and serve their customers better (Abrahams, 2012). This enhances customer engagement thereby enabling the organization to build long-term customer relationship. Engaging the customer has become important in the turbulent business environment today. Apple or its iPod and iPad, CNN and Starbucks have been extensively using social media marketing for building brand awareness and brand community (Palmer & Koenig-Lewis, 2009). The number of active FaceBook users reached 500 million by 2010 with over 70% users being outside the US. More than 10 million Tweets or messages had been sent by March 2010 since its launch in 2006 (Baird & Parasnis, 2011). These have now reached a state that consumers and their virtual networks drive the conversation, which poses challenges for businesses. Companies are increasingly becoming engaged in social media marketing because they believe they will be â€Å"out of touch† if they do not do so. However, consumers have their own reasons for being engaged in social media platforms. They expect tangible benefits such as discount coupons for sharing their opinions. Thus, while social media marketing has a wider reach and great potential to engage and build customer relationship, it also poses challenges. It is also not known to what extent businesses are ready for using this platform as this is a shift from the traditional marketing media such as advertising through television and magazines. Moreover, the users might be increasing but many use social media merely to connect with family and friends. 2. Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of Social Media Marketing for business entrepreneurs. Social media marketing has several advantages such as that it allows business to gather information about their clients, create communities and encourage participation (Champoux, Durgee & McGlynn, 2012). Entrepreneurs that have been able to incorporate the social media into their business model have been able to increase brand awareness (27%), boost sales (15%) and improve customer service (11%) (Tuttle, 2010). They use the social media marketing to achieve a high level of search engine optimization (SEO) and natural search generate more sales. Increased brand awareness, increased customer acquisition and spread of information and other links is very fast through linking systems. This facilitates stakeholder communication but the disadvantage here is that the company has no control over t he content (Aula, 2010). Both small and big businesses have been harnessing the potential of social media marketing. Big businesses such as IBM own more than 100 blogs, several official Twitter accounts and a popular forum called developerWorks (Zarrella, 2010).

Episcopal Social Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Episcopal Social Services - Essay Example From its humble beginnings of providing assistance to needy immigrants in New York, ESS has expanded its activities to take on several social activities, starting with children and going on to adolescents requiring support and then on to adults. At the heart of the social activities lies the theme of improving the capabilities of individuals to become productive members of society and improve the quality of their life. This paper describes Episcopal Social Services and its activities as a social service organization. This paper has been written after visiting Episcopal Social Services, 305, Seventh Avenue, New York and collecting information from Naomi Hopkins, their Communication Manager. ESS was founded in 1831 by members of the Episcopal Church, in an attempt to assist the vast number of immigrants arriving in America to overcome their difficulties. Though it had a religious background ESS from its founding days remained non-sectarian as it reached out any person that was poor, sick, homeless, hungry, or imprisoned to provide the needed service (Episcopal Social Services, 2011). Throughout its 180 years of existence ESS has maintained this mission of attempting to transform and better the lives of the disadvantaged and needy residents of New York City (Episcopal Social Services, 2011). These services cover children, families and children. As early as 1864 ESS reached to provide convalescent homes and summer camps for the infirm and the undernourished; temporary lodging; clothing, food, and emergency funding for the destitute; trade schools for developing skills in the unskilled; and social clubs and free reading rooms to help keep poor people off the rough and dang erous streets of New York (Episcopal Social Services, 2011). Expanding their activities, ESS in 1907, set up an office at Ellis Island for the purpose of providing assistance to newly arrived immigrants, who were quarantined

Dissenting Opinions about Outsourcing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dissenting Opinions about Outsourcing - Essay Example In 2009, the jobs that were lost to outsourcing may be difficult to quantify but Congressional studies last year has already quantified both the numbers of jobs and dollars lost to outsourcing abroad (Jackson 36-40). Also, his argument that more jobs were created in the technology industry due to outsourcing is flatly wrong because the financial crisis in 2010 hit the technology industry hard that many lost their jobs and along with it their homes. Of course, Andriole did not know that the financial crisis will strike but still, it does not excuse his argument that it is still wrong. Andriole’s argument that companies outsource to focus on their core competency and to save on cost may be a hypothesis when he wrote the article four years ago but it is already a given today that companies outsource not just to focus on their competency but also to save on cost and become competitive. It is a business imperative that companies will outsource â€Å"to get access to expertise at a good price† as what Andriole have mentioned and that is wherever that may be, locally or globally. This is no longer argued today because it is already a part of business reality. With regard to government’s responsiveness to technological change and the policy structure and educational system necessary to remain current and competitive is relative. I said relative because Andriole made a sweeping statement without inferring to any concrete study or figure that would correlate his statement. This is arguable because many academicians and politicians will tell that the best universities are still in the United States and we continue to fund cutting edge studies. On the other hand, many will also say that US capability is diminished and that it is no longer responsive to the demands of the workplace. Many will cite the scores in Math

Produce Text Incorporating Three Patches On Professional Understanding Nursing Essay

Produce Text Incorporating Three Patches On Professional Understanding Nursing Essay The aim of this assessment is to produce a patch work text incorporating three patches on professional understanding. I am a second year Diagnostic Radiography student on a Inter professional programme working within the NHS. Radiography as a profession is very diverse and requires good communication among the inter-professional team. Diagnostic Radiography uses X-rays, Computerised Tomography (CT), Fluoroscopy, Nuclear Medicine, Ultra Sound and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to generate images of bones and organs. Within this profession there are many aspects of ionising radiation that can be covered in one department; these aspects come under different modalities, many of which are mentioned above. The primary role of the radiographer is to diagnose injury or disease within the human body with the aid of these modalities using ionising radiation. As a professional body that is in control of Radiation exposure, there are regulations and guidelines I must adhere to. Such as the radiation protection legislation and the code of professional standards and conduct in accordance with the Society of Radiographers (SoR), who are the radiographers governing body. IRMER, The ionising radiation (medical exposure) regulations, lay down the basic measures for the, health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionising radiation in relation to medical exposure. This applies to anyone working with radiation within a medical environment and provides safe working surrounding s for both the radiographer and the patient. I am also bound to ten statements found within the code of conduct for radiography which exemplify the, principles of professionalism, professional responsibility and accountability. These codes and regulations are not only set in place to ensure good practice but to also protect the patient and provide excellent patie nt care. Professional Understanding Patch 1 It is on reflection of my profession and these conducts that I wish to evaluate my role and contribution to the inter-professional team with the Gibbs reflective framework 1988 being used as my guide for reflection (see appendix), as this cycle, encourages you to think systematically about the phases of an experience or activity,'(Gibbs 1988). Whilst working within the confinements of the NHS I have unfortunately stereotyped many of my colleagues and feel I do not appreciate the true meaning of collaborative practice An Interprofessional process for communication and decision making that enables the separate and shared knowledge and skills of care providers to synergistically influence the client/patient care provided, (Jones Way, 2000). As after all, we all share as professionals the priority to make the care of people our first concern, treating them as individuals and respecting their dignity, (NMC 2008) As I look back over my practical experience I can see that it was pure naivety mixed with focused ambition which caused me to initially stereotype my colleagues. I was so intent on progressing through my degree that my main focus was on what I was learning in relation to radiography, by means of what images I was producing and whether or not they where diagnostic. My focus was on insuring I wasnt missing any vital pathology or fractures and on learning more of the anatomy so I could truly understand what I was looking for and why. It was this original determination that diminished the bigger picture for me, as I was unable to see the impact that as a professional I was having not just on the patient but on how the patients treatment will be managed and by who. The fact that I had little to no interaction with paediatric or adult nurses also contributed to this problem, but this was my own fault as I ignored these chances when they arose as I felt they would inhibit my main priority. So unfortunately to me my colleagues where still labelled as either subservient, handmaidens of the physician (Pillitteri Ackerman, 1993) or the childish, plays all the time nurse as there was no interest or need on my behalf to change this erroneous view. Ironically it was these views that would inhibit my professional development as in order for me to progress in the way I desired and become the best professional I could be I needed to appreciate my colleagues and work together with, one or more members of the health care team who each make a unique contribution to achieving a common goal, (CNO 2008). It wasnt until professional issues arose on placement that I began to question why I had labelled my colleagues this way, my first thought was through slapstick comedy and the media, regardless of the reason I was sure these were labels I wanted removed. Through both practical experience and academic modules I was slowly able to gain more of an insight into the roles and responsibilities of both child and adult nurses and although there are obvious differences, the main being that I work with and administer radiation and they dont, I found I was writing more similarities. The Code of Conducts that each individual professional is bound by provides these similarities but its our personal views on each profession and our lack of understanding that causes the stereotypes. Through understanding my own codes of conduct, ten statements set by the Society of Radiographers (SoR) and by comparing those with the codes set forth by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) and the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH), the main similarity between the professions is clearly visible, as both documents publicly set out, the underpinning values and principles to promote, maintain and disseminate the highest standards of behaviour in order to enhance the good standing and reputation, (SoR 2004) of that profession and both also endorse the importance of working with others to, protect and promote the health and wellbeing of those in your care, (NMC). It became clear to me that although our individual professions dictate our role within the practical setting the codes and legislations we each adhere to entwine. As it is our collaboration with other health care professionals that promote and maintain patient centred practice, providing the patient with the right care at the highest quality. As an adult nurse provides care to support the recovery of patients, I as a radiographer diagnose disease and am responsible for the examination of patients using radiation. These differences help me to define myself as a professional, but it is through the collaboration with others that I am made more individual. As individuals we each have a specific role to play but as a collective our roles are so much more important, as we would not be able to fulfil our purpose of making the care of people our primary concern without the help of other professional bodies. 825 words Patch 2 Team work or team working can be defined as a certain number of people who have shared objectives at work and who cooperate, on a permanent or temporary basis, to achieve those objectives in a way that allows each individual to make a distinctive contribution, (CIPD 2010).This meant that traditional hierarchical forms were gradually replaced with employees that were expected to fulfil a variety of roles, now known as collaborative practice. Marc Alperstein and Amà ©lie Scalercio have constructed a piece of art, Collaborative Works, (see appendix) that I feel embodies this transition and highlights the individual issues that surround collaboration. The picture itself seems to document a conversation or argument that exists between two wills who are struggling to impose their presence or mark into an act. It is necessary that these works engage in collaborative practice to record the struggle that ensues in this dynamic exchange, one that could not exist if operating in solitude, (Art ist statement). The image almost mimics what occurs within the confines of a hospital environment, as it demonstrates that without Interprofessional working we would not be able to fulfil our collective role of good patient management and care. Making a difference, (DH 1999) suggests that effective care is the product of interagency working, where professionals work in collaboration to provide care which is designed to meet the needs of the patient. This concept was further promoted with the publication of The NHS Plan (DH 2000a) a ten year programme of reform practice. The NHS Plan (DH 2000a) aimed to create a service designed around patient needs, encouraging professionals to work together. Collaboration however, does not come without its constraints, as portrayed in the artist impression the two hands are tied together, illustrating the conflict shown by each individual profession as Interprofessional working is extremely challenging in the workplace, and is not an easy concept for healthcare professionals to adopt, (McWilliam et al 2003).Unfortunately this leads to a lower standard of care being delivered to patients within hospital environments, due to healthcare professionals misunderstanding the policies, education and research regarding Interprofessional working. This is owed to the, lack of support and training from managers, and the need for, managers to involve staff in changes within practice and that this involvement facilitates co-operation. (Deegan et al 2004). Co-operation is a major factor of a successful Interprofessional team as it not only benefits and improves the care that we provide to our patients but also enables the team itself to act efficiently by enabling professional benefits such as the, sharing of knowledge and the opportunities to experience areas of work outside ones own remit. (Barr 2004) The advantages are not only work related it is also suggested that professionals may have levels of improved job satisfaction and increased levels of confidence in dealing with difficult situations. We are all so focused on our individual job roles and on the polices and procedures that define us as a professional that we create our own conflict with an opposing profession as we try to prove ourselves, which is echoed in the picture. As each person holds one end of the tie, the tie representing the constraint we place upon ourselves and upon our professional identity, with each hand representative of how this constraint is self inflicted. After all this an image of two wills struggling to find their presence or mark in an act, as we at our place of work struggle to define our role within the patient pathway. However it is this conflict that diminishes the bigger picture as, as each hand is responsible for creating this conflict restraint; one hand can not break free of the bound without the collaboration of the other. This strongly relates back to practice as without the help and cooperation of another profession the patient like the hand would not be able to progress and conseq uently become free without Interprofessional collaboration. In order for us as professionals to provide care that is respectful of and responsive to individual patient preferences, needs, and values and ensuring that patient values guide all clinical decisions (Institute of medicine PCC) we must work as Interprofessional team and, learn from and about each other to improve collaboration and the quality of care. (CAIPE 1997). There will always be a time that I as radiographer will need to cooperate with other members of the Interprofessional team, be it in surgery with consultants, anaesthetists and nurses or in the department with the radiologists, and it is this collaboration that will ensure that the patient is the focus point and that they will be managed and assessed as an individual with all pathways collectively working together, as opposed to two wills who are struggling to impose their presence or mark into an act. Words 798. Patch 3 Throughout this past year the main focus both practically and academically has been on collaborative practice, and how this has represented itself as a personal struggle to over come problems such as stereotyping colleagues, conflict issues and communication concerns. With the aid of the CPD module these issues that once clouded personal judgment faded and the real connotation of collaborative practice was revealed. Collaborative practice infers that people from different professional and academic backgrounds form a working relationship for the purpose of enhanced service provision. Although the real value of collaborative working is clear the move towards collaborative practice in Health and Social Care proved challenging, as it was essentially, the change from institutional to community-based care, (Barr et al, 1999). This meant that the, demarcations and hierarchical relations between professions were neither sustainable, (Sibbald, 2000) or appropriate and new ways of working that, crossed professional boundaries had to be created, in order to allow a more flexible approach to care delivery, (Malin et al, 2002). This transition became the cause of conflict within a now Interprofessional team and as a result stereotypes were formed and communication problems arouse. It seems that although this change was for the better, in providing a better standard of care for the patient, this focus was lost by the professionals whose duty this was. This is still very much an issue, where professionals are so centred on their individual position; they forget how much of a r ole they play in the Interprofessional team. The fact that collaborative practice has lacked a clear definition and instead has been linked with terms such as cooperation, coordination, participation and integration, has in some ways strengthened the issues that have prevented professionals from satisfying its purpose efficiently. It is also a relatively new field of practice, with the first major studies being undertaken in the 1980s, (Roy, 2001) however, since the implementation of the 1990 NHS and Community Care Act (Department of Health, 1990), the collaborative practice has featured prominently in government policy documents to promote, joint working, partnership and the creation of a seamless service between health and social care, (Maxwell, 1998; Payne, 1995). The importance of collaboration has always been emphasised practically and is also part of the academic pathway in the hope that the surrounding issues can be resolved before practitioners become professionals. Throughout the module the significance of collaboration with regards to person centred care became more important than the issues that encircled collaborative practice. It became increasingly essential to see the patient as equal partners in planning, developing and assessing care to make sure it is most appropriate for their needs and putting service users and their families at the heart of all decisions. In order to provide an excellent level of service each patient needs to be viewed as the individual they are, they can not be stereotyped by their age, sex, or symptoms. The main reason being that the way in which one patient is managed and treated would not work for another patient representing with the same symptoms, as his or her body could react differently to that treat ment, thus complicating the initial problem. It is the duty of any professional body to provide, care that respects the person as an individual and is arranged according to their needs, (DH 2008). However this care can not be administered without good communication from each professional that is responsible for the pathway of each individual service user. Communication is pivotal in a successful relationship be it between colleagues in the work place, students at university or family at home, it enables individuals to express themselves their concerns or relay important information to others. When this barrier is broken especially within the hospital sector each department become isolated and effectively treats the patient blind, as without communication from the nursing staff or the accident and emergency department a radiographer would not be aware of the symptoms a patient presents with and would therefore not be able to conduct an examination catered to that individuals needs. T he requirement for good communication enhances not only the professionals skills and ability to provide and excellent level of person centred care but enables a successful Interprofessional team to be consolidated, something that is also promoted academically. Interprofessional Learning can be defined as, Occasions when two or more professions learn with, from and about each other to improve collaboration and the quality of care, (CAIPE 2005). Interprofessional learning enables different health and social care workers and agencies to gain a greater appreciation of each others values, knowledge and abilities and facilitates the best use of their skills which underpins the reality of the complexity of healthcare. Single professions or individual professionals working in isolation do not have the expertise to respond adequately and effectively to the complexity of many service users needs, (CAIPE 2006). In order to ensure that care given is safe, seamless and of a high standard it is e ssential that individual professionals, respect the integrity and contribution of each profession, (CAIPE 2006) and communicate with them effectively, relaying all the appropriate medical history and continuing to work closely with each other to ensure the patient is managed correctly and efficiently. Good patient care stems from a well defined Interprofessional team that collaboratively work with each other, to overcome communication issues, conflict issues and the stereotyping of their colleagues. By doing this all the professionals involved are able to treat the patient as an individual and cater to their individual needs, making them a part of the process and involving them in the decisions made about them. This all bauds well for the successful running of the NHS and in turn successful patient management, each professional chooses to be apart of this system to improve the quality of life for each and every service user, but it is important to remember that this can not be achieved by individuals who become isolated form a team. Although it is important to be an individual, it is of greater importance to be individual that is a part of an Interprofessional team. Words 1014. References: Barr, H (2005) Interprofessional Education: Today, Yesterday and Tomorrow. Accessed on 30.08.10. Reviewed 2004. Available at: http://www.health.heacademy.ac.uk/publications/occasionalpaper/occp1revised.pdf CAIPE. Interprofessional learning. Accessed on 23.11.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: http://www.caipe.org.uk CIPD 2010 Team working. What is team working? Accessed on 03.10.10. Reviewed on 01.01.10. Available at: http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/maneco/general/teamwork.htm. Collaborative works. Marc Alperstein and Amà ©lie Scalercio. Accessed on 16.08.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: http://www.marcalperstein.com/collaboration Cooper, H., Braye, S,. and Geyer, R. ( 2004) Complexity and Interprofessional education. Learning in Health and Social Care 3 (4) pp 179-189. Accessed 02.02.10. DOH (2000a) A Health Service of all the Talents: Developing the NHS Workforce. DoH London. Accessed on 30.08.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: www.dh.go.uk DOH (2000b) The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment, A Plan for Reform. DoH London. Accessed on 30.08.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: www.dh.gov.uk DOH (2001) Working Together Learning Together: a Framework for Lifelong Learning for the NHS. DoH London. Accessed on 30.08.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: www.dh.gov.uk Framework for action on Interprofessional education and collaborative practice. Health professionals networks nursing and midwifery human resources for health. Publisher WHO the world health organisation. Reviewed 2010. Accessed 20.08.10 Freeth, D (2001) Sustaining Interprofessional collaboration. Journal of Interprofessional Care 15 pp 37-46. Accessed 02.09.10. Gibbs G (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic: Oxford 2009. Accessed on 20.08.10. Reviewed 2009. Available at: http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/upgrade/a-z/reflective_gibbs.html Glen, S and Reeves, S. (2004) Developing Interprofessional education in the pre-registration curricula: mission impossible? Nurse Education in Practice 4 pp 45-52. Accessed 05.09.10 Gordon F, Walsh C, Marshall M, Wilson F, Hunt T (2004). Developing Interprofessional capability in students of health and social care the role of practice-based learning. Journal of Integrated Care 12 (4) pp 12-18. Accessed 05.09.10 Interprofessional Collaboration among health colleges and professions. College of nurses Ontario (CNO). Accessed on 22.08.10. Reviewed May 2008. Available at: http://www.hprac.org Interprofessional learning. Practice based learning. Accessed n 25.11.10. Reviewed 04.09.08. Available at: http://www.practicebasedlearning.org/resources/ipl/intro.htm Interprofessional learning and caring for needs. London: South Bank University. Whitehead, D. (2001) Applying collaborative practice to health promotion. Nursing Standard. 15(20) pp33-37. Accessed 15.11.10 Jones and Way 2000 collaborative practice. Collaborative practice. Support the development of improved collaboration in healthcare. South eastern Interprofessional Collaborative Learning Environment (SEIPCLE). Queens University. Accessed 20.08.10. Reviewed no date. Available at: http://www.rehab.queensu.ca/uploads/clined/CollaborativePracticeModule.pdf Patient centred care. Why patient centred care? Accessed on 21.08.10. Reviewed 2008. Available at: http://www.patientcenteredcare.net/. Patient centred care policies (2008). Accessed on 21.11.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: www.dh.gov.uk. Person centred care. The health foundation . Accessed on 20.11.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: http://www.health.org.uk Person Centred Care (2006). Accessed on 21.11.10. Reviewed 2010. Available at: www.cmg.org.uk. RCPHC. Royal college of paediatrics and child health. Codes of Conduct. Accessed 23.08.10. Reviewed no date. Available at: http://www.rcpch.ac.uk. SoR statements of conduct Radiography. Statements for Professional Conduct. The college of radiographers. Accessed 22.08.10. Reviewed September 2004. Available at: www.sor.org Appendix 1 Gibbs reflective cycle 1988 http://www.deakin.edu.au/itl/pd/tl-modules/teaching-approach/group-assignments/images/reflective-practice.gif

Ancient Stories Of The Flood :: essays research papers

Stories of a primeval flood exist in all parts of the world, virtually every branch of the human race has traditions of a Great Flood that destroyed all of mankind, except one family.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The closest parallel to the Biblical story of the flood occurs in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, our fullest version of which is furnished by an Akkadian recension prepared, in the seventh century B.C. for the great library of King Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. The story itself is far older. We have fragments of versions dating as much as a thousand years earlier, and we possess also portions of a Summerian archetype.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Mesopotamian version: the gods apparently displeased with the evils of mankind decided to destroy it by means of a great flood. Ea, the god of wisdom and subtlety, was privy to their council and warned Utnapishtim, the Babylonian Noah, of the coming disaster. Utnapishtim was told to build a ship thirty cubits long and thirty cubits wide. Provision it and put in it specimens of every living thing. Then to board it with his family and possessions and launch it on the waters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For six days and nights the wind and flood raged. On the seventh day the flood abated. Everything, including mankind, had turned to mud and clay.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Utnapishtim sent out a dove on the seventh day but it came back. He then sent out a swallow, but it came back. Finally he sent out a raven. The raven, however, saw that the waters had receded; it found food, and started to caw and wallow in the mud; it never came back. Eventually the ship grounded on Mount Nisir. Utnapishtim, seeing that the flood had receded, disembarked and set out an offering for the gods.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Enil, “Lord of the underworld,'; was very angry when he saw that Utnapishtim had been spared. He was soon calmed by the other gods and gave his blessing to Utnapishtim and his wife by granting them the gift of immortality and transferring them to a remote island.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Older versions, of which only fragments survive, tell virtually the same story, though the hero is sometimes called Atrahasis, or “Superwise,'; rather than Utnapishtim. In Western Asia the legend of the flood is of Summerian origin, and is now known from the excavations at Kish and Ur to have been based upon an historical catastrophe. In the Summerian version the hero is named Ziusudra, “the long lived.

Biological approach to health and social care Essay

The biological approach can be used to explain many thing within health and social care, it can also be useful in diagnosing and treating service users, and is effective for practitioners to asses and help their patience within heath care and social care alike. The biological approach can have a positive impact on the service user because tests such as the assessment scale are available so that they can fully understand why there behaviour is the way it is, and also what is normal and abnormal for their age. It is useful for practitioners to know if the influence of genetics has anything to do with a person’s behaviour so that they can give the service user the best possible help and attention. Genetic testing is also useful; it has potential benefits whether the results are positive or negative for a gene mutation. Test results can provide a sense of relief from uncertainty and help people make informed decisions about managing their health care. For example, a negative result can eliminate the need for unnecessary check-ups and screening tests in some cases. A positive result can direct a person toward available prevention, monitoring, and treatment options. Some test results can also help people make decisions about having children. New-born screening can identify genetic disorders early in life so treatment can be started as early as possible. A social care worker could use the assessment scale effectively on children to determine whether or not they have additional needs that need to be dealt with such as a learning disability, however once that child has being diagnosed with this problem the biological approach doesn’t then tell the practitioner how to treat or help that child, this is because every child’s needs are slightly different and there are a wide range of problems that need different treatment for. Also the assessment scale wouldn’t be useful within the health care sector for example caring for an adult with clinical depression, the assessment scale Is very limited and therefore is only useful within a small area of health and social care. However a service user with severe depression would benefit from the biological approach by focusing on genetic testing and medication. Depression is thought to involve both genetic and environmental factors, with genetics playing a larger role in the type of depression that is severe and recurrent, and a study has identified a region of DNA that may include a gene or genes that affect an individual’s vulnerability to severe persistent depression. From this research biological physiologists can make a clear  link between genes and depression and can then advice patience on the best possible method of improving their health. On a wider scale of health and social care hormones and brain activity can be used to explain why people behave in certain ways and how it can affect their everyday lives or others around them for example a patient with a brain damage, the biological approach explains why and how the person may react and how that particular injury effects their behavior. There are many strengths of the biological approach one strength is that this approach is supported by recent accurate research. Our understanding of genetics and the structure of human genes may be used as support, together with all the medical techniques, such as MRI, to show exactly how the brain and its chemicals affect our behaviour. For example, scans can show which part of the brain are active during a particular behaviour, which would help us to develop therapy. Another benefit of the biological perspective is that it has a high success rate in treatment. For example, someone might be given an antidepressant drug and might begin to feel better. Whether its medication or less common biological treatments, like therapy or Biofeedback; modern biological treatments have shown to be successful at treating mental illness, particularly in patients who do not respond well to talk therapy. .Despite this, it ignores the profound effect environment can have on people. For example, what if a patient is depressed because of personal problems such as losing his job, or death in a family. These are situations that can play a role in whether or not a person is feeling depressed., the biological perspective is often seen as limited, since it neglects other possible causes for behaviour, the impact of different cultural upbringings, mental states, and emotional desires. For example, it focuses too much on the ‘nature’ side of the nature/nurture debate. It argues that behavior is caused by hormones and genetics. One theory is that schizophrenia is genetic; however, twin studies show that it is not completely genetic and the environment has a part to play.

Watership Down essays

Watership Down essays AUTHOR Watership Down was written by Richard Adams, who was born May 9, 1920, in Berkshire, England. He won two awards for this novel. He is still living. Hazel became the leader of the rabbits once they left their original warren. He was a very smart and tricky rabbit who won the respect and trust of the other rabbits by his courage and many great deeds. He always handled problems calmly so others would also remained calm. Whenever a plan was needed, Hazel would always come up with one. Fiver, the younger brother of Hazel, was unique because of his small size and ability to foresee danger. He saved the rabbits from death by warning some rabbits of the danger. Bigwig, a great fighting and courageous rabbit, was essential for the success of the traveling rabbits. He loved to fight and always did his best to protect the others. He was also the bird Kehaars best friend and enjoyed spending time with him. Blackberry was the most intelligent rabbit in the group. For example, he made a boat to cross a river although the others had never even seen or understood the floating concept. Blackberry always helped Hazel to think of ideas when problems arose. Dandelion, another smart rabbit, was known for his speed and for his great story telling of El-ahrairah, the rabbit folk hero. He could always tell stories which distracted and eased the rabbits from problems. Pipkin, a good friend of Fiver, was small like Fiver but acted as if he was as big as Bigwig. He always did what he was told and never complained. One day Fiver, sensing danger, convinced his brother Hazel that they must leave their warren. Hazel tried to warn the Chief Rabbit of the danger, but he did not listen. Hazel gathered a group and went along the brook until they reached another warren of rabbits. These rabbits were very strange and acted differently from other rabbits. Hazel and his group decided to leave after Bigwig got ca ...

lsfvh essays

lsfvh essays The Internet provides many different types of information on virtually any topic possible. There are many components that make up the Internet besides text. Software that is available on the Internet is ever-changing and is rapidly growing. Napster is a software company located in California, that distributes music, to users all over the world. Napster is among the many programs that enables you to "share" audio files with people all over the world on the Internet. The controversial topic is, where do you cross the line between sharing and stealing? Many people believe that Napster should be banned permanently because it violates numerous copyright laws and many major company labels should be paid for there losses. There are also some people that think Napster should be allowed because it isn't really considered to be stealing if someone gives you the music for free. This issue has intensified over the past 6 months, and now there is a legal debate to determine Napster's fate on the Internet. The co-owner of Napster is Shawn Fanning. At a young age of 19 years old, Fanning designed Napster as a freshman at Northeastern University in Boston. Fanning bought and self-taught himself Windows 95, Common Controls and Messages API Bible off of www.Amazon.com. He began building a piece of software that would allow people to connect to a computer network where they could freely trade songs back and forth. This is defined as peer to peer technology. He named it Napster and it was more than just normal computer code. What he created was not only the fastest-growing Internet program in the world but also the launch of a "paradigm shift" for the world wide web. Some have dubbed Fanning the "Robin hood of the Internet", comparing him to stealing from rich music industries and providing millions with free music. Fanning dropped out of school, reloca ...

U.S History 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

U.S History 1 - Essay Example After Columbus’ discovery of the New World, the entry of the wide variety of globally acclaimed luxury commodities in the European markets through the sea route stopped the earlier market of the luxury goods that was prevailing. The pre-existing German and Italian trading powers were ousted by the Atlantic trade. There had been social changes in the European luxury markets as the new luxury items like chinaware, silk, spices and sugar made their entry. During the Age of Discovery, Western Europe has been had become the Economic Center for the European Union shifting from the Mediterranean. At that time the city of Antwerp, which was a part of Duchy of Barabant, was considered to be Europe’s richest city and also center of the international economy. During the Age of Discovery, the religious sentiments, gave rise to the discoveries at this age. It was seen that while the Islamic community was expanding its horizon, the Western Christendom was getting destroyed. European Union became vulnerable and they feared to be attacked by infidel East. It was also agreed and known by the Europeans that the Far East was highly rich and luxurious. If we take a deeper look into these discoveries, we find the similarities with the Crusaders prevailed during the 12th and 13th centuries. The main effort in spreading the belief of Christianity among the New World residents was mainly started by the Catholic Church during the Age of Discovery. The Catholic Church also took the initiative of converting the indigenous people as well as the Native Americans. Portugal, France and Spain were the three countries that put the colonial efforts in forming the European powers, majority of which was the missionary effort and gave a partial justification for the same. Catholic nations’ colonial efforts and indigenous people’s Christian Mission ran in parallel. Moreover, Dominicans, Jesuits, Franciscans

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

International Business - Essay Example Modern society belong to the world of globalization and liberalization. Most of the countries changed the rules and regulations to accommodate Globalization and Liberalization. The boundaries of such countries are open to MNC’s irrespective of their origin or culture. But the main problem is such MNC’s have monopolized the market and small companies found it extremely difficult to survive in the market. The entry of MNC’s mostly welcomed by the consumers since they are getting quality products at affordable prices. But the small local companies are unanimously opposing the entry of MNC’s because of their inability to compete with the MNC’s. Now the question is how far a government can open their doors for the MNC’s? Can a government keep a blind eye towards the needs of small local companies? How can a government protect the interest of small local companies after signing agreements with regional trading blocs? â€Å"Regional integration agreements (RIA), also known as regional trading blocs, have become one of the major international relations developments in recent years. Most industrial or developing nations belong to one or more RIAs, and there are many. It has been said that more than one third of all world trade takes place within RIAs and that percentage increases daily. The merits and demerits of foreign culture will be induced through the MNC’s which will be a threat to the tradition and culture of the country.

Customer Service-Customer for Life-discussion Personal Statement

Customer Service-Customer for Life-discussion - Personal Statement Example Companies should aim at optimizing the entire customer experience while again focusing on traditional CRM functions like customer loyalty program, call center automation and outbound marketing. Companies need customer experience management in order to develop lifelong customers. In North Dakota, a company that fits this description is Gate City Bank. The corporation ensures that the processes of its employees are completely attuned to making and keeping the customers satisfied at each and every step along the way, which it does with the help of a thorough and detailed feedback program. The Bank also ensures that their customers feel special and appreciated to make them lifelong customers. A condition it achieves by sending them gifts or cards on special occasions and holidays, remembering their anniversaries and birthdays, sending them a regular newsletter and special reports explaining top them how to benefit more from the products offered and also to improve their various life aspects. The company summarizes this in their mission

Abraham Lincoln Bio Essay Example for Free

Abraham Lincoln Bio Essay Since his death in 1865, Abraham Lincoln has been immortalized as one of, if not the greatest hero in American history due to his role in ending the Civil War and abolishing slavery. He led our country through its’ darkest days and was able to prevent the south from successfully seceding and preserving the United States. Throughout history many have been called heroes, some deservedly and others not. Lincoln’s recognition as a hero is valid because of his many achievements and his leadership style. Lincoln was born in February 1809, in Kentucky. His early life was difficult, losing his mother to illness at 9 years old. The family was poor and Lincoln needed to work to help support them. As a result, he had very little formal education, but it was this hard work and humble beginnings that ignited the spark in Lincoln to learn. When he was a young man the family moved to Illinois and it was there that Lincoln learned the law and became interested in local politics. In 1834 he was elected to the Illinois State Legislature. He taught himself the law, was admitted to the Bar in 1836 and also began a career as a successful lawyer. Between 1847 and 1849 he served one term in the U.S. House of Representatives. As a result of the increased opposition to slavery, the Republican Party was born and Lincoln joined the party in 1856. It was his anti-slavery views and the continuing passing of laws to protect slavery that further sparked his interest in politics. He ran unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate but obtain national exposure from the race due to his unique communication and debating techniques. It was this exposure that found him as a candidate for President in 1860. He was elected the 16th President of the United States and the first President from the Republican Party. Because of his well-known views on slavery, the  secessionists began their plans to split from the Union prior to his taking office. The Civil Was began in April of 1861 with the attack on Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Almost immediately in his role as President, Lincoln was faced with the most challenging situation of any President prior to him. His decision-making and communication skills, though unpopular at times, would be a vital part of his success over the next several years. Lincoln possessed strong social intelligence skills. He was sensitive to other people’s feelings and moods, and he was particularly adept at reading people. Lincoln had a great ability in understanding the motivations of others, and was skillful at getting others to cooperate with him. He knew to be pleasant and approachable while also being fierce when fighting for causes he believed in. One tool that Lincoln would use was storytelling. He would use stories from his past which would put people at ease while at the same time relaying his point in a clear way. Another method he would use was to ask questions to get his rivals to see things his way. His communication style and speeches were simple and logical. Abraham Lincoln’s most famous speech was the Gettysburg Address given in 1863 at the dedication of the National Cemetery after the battle at Gettysburg. The speech last just over two minutes and was an example of how Lincoln understood his audience. There had been much â€Å"Pomp and Circumstance† throughout the ceremony and many long speeches prior to his. The words he chose were short and to the point, but were full of inspiration and emotion. The speech focused on the principles of the founding fathers of our nation and the words from the Declaration of Independence that â€Å"all men are created equal† and that all men have the unalienable rights to the pursuit of life, liberty and happiness. One of the main things Lincoln wanted to accomplish with this speech, was to rally support for the 13th Amendment, which would abolish slavery and was in jeopardy of failing to pass in Congress. Lincoln again used his influence as a communicator to get the 13th Amendment passed. He would spend hours with his political rivals building relationships. It was important that he understood their perspectives on the issues and would give them the opportunity to express their views and needs. His approach was thoughtful and personal. This bill was met with much opposition and it took great skill and tenacity on Lincoln’s part to insure its passage. Many Presidents since Lincoln have also faced challenges when trying to pass  legislature, among them our current President Barack Obama. Whether or not you are a supporter of our current President aside, some similarities can be seen between the two. As was the case with Lincoln, Obama is known for his listening skills, and taking in ideas from all sides. He is a skilled orator and there is a strong sense of morality in his tone when speaking. There are many references to President Lincoln in Obama’s speeches which show the influence the former President has on him. Abraham Lincoln led our nation through one of its most turbulent times. He used his communication skills and understanding of people to obtain success. His ability to talk to people and understand what they stood for while moving them to see things his way led him to be regarded as one of our greatest Presidents. References A-E Networks. Abraham lincoln biography [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://www.biography.com/people/abraham-lincoln-9382540 Abraham and Mary Lincoln: A House Divided PBS. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/lincolns/player/ Hubbard, C. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.historynet.com/abraham-lincoln Communicate like Abraham Lincoln. Retrieved from:http://www.communitelligence.com/blps/article.cfm?weblog The Connections Between President Barack Obama and President Abraham Lincoln (n.d.)Retrieved from: http://www.reobama.com/ObamaLincoln.htm House passes the 13th Amendment. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/house-passes-the-13th-amendment

Internationalisation of Public Relations Education

Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Introduction The main theme of the dissertation is internationalisation of public relations education. It is quite a broad topic and can be reviewed and discussed from different points of view. In this regard the selected literature first examines international public relations concepts and secondly an impact it has on public relations education. Therefore, literature review has been divided into the following major themes: International public relations (IPR) and International public relations education (IPRE). The chapter will begin by presenting the main debates about international public relations and its concepts alongside with a brief overview of factors influencing it. It will be followed by a section presenting state of research on IPR. The discussion will then move to section two international public relations education, exploring the requisites and challenges for internationalisation. Finally the chapter will summarise the key themes and points identified. The major part of the literature review focuses on contemporary research, defined as 1989-2009. International PR A growing number of publications document the development and challenges of the public relations in every major continent and region of the world (Nally, 1991, Moss et al., 1997, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003b, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Freitag and Stokes, 2009). This research refers term global PR to globalisation of the profession, which is being practises and recognised in more countries throughout the globe, while International PR refers to the planning and implementation of programmes and campaigns carried out abroad or for international audience. Hence international PR education refers to the process of adopting professional training to International PR concepts and demand. Public relations is still relatively new concern for management, even though its modern origins can be traced to the end of the last century (White, 1991). According to (Cutlip, 1994), a key researcher in the history of public relations in the U.S., the first international public relations agency The Hamilton Wright Organization was founded in 1908. International communities of professionals and scholars are increasingly interested in transferring knowledge, experiences, and best practices from national to transnational scenarios. This advancement is generated by the increasing role of public relations which is driven largely by the influence of new information technologies and globalisation (Flodin, 2003). Drawing upon this, DiStaso et al. (2009) discussed the effects of globalisation, that began with the Maastricht Treaty and NAFTAA in 1992, the WTO in 1994 and claiming it had great impact on the public relations industry. According to Szondis (2009, p.115) International public relations is the planned communication activity of a (multinational) organisation, a supra- or international institution or government through interactions in the target country which facilitates the organisation (or government) to achieve its policy or business objectives without harming the interests of the publics. There have been papers which presented international PR to be simply about how to overcome barriers that are created by other cultures, including language, laws or cultural issues, which are often indentified as problems (Wilcox et al., 2001), rather than opportunities or the manifestation of diversity. The most frequently referenced paper which stands against IPR has been Angell (1990) asserted that the variance between local countries was so great as to preclude any possibility of globalisation. A much different study, also highly referenced, has been provided by Pavlik (1987), who as early as the 1980s considered IPR one of the most rapidly growing areas of the profession, and one of the least understood. The problem with defining difference between domestically and internationally done public relations is that there is not enough research or critical assessment. While basic principles do not change, the way they are carried out from culture to culture and country to country, and the attitudes and values embedded within those different cultures or countries, are different (Wakefield, 2007b). A similar study was conducted by Botan (1992, p. 157), who argued that international public relations is always intercultural. The existing public relations body of knowledge, and public relations curricula around the world, have a U.S. bias (Sriramesh, 2002). U.S. paradigm, however, strikes with the idea of that European or non-U.S. perceptions of public relations become more of value in the twenty first century. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield (2007b), who have been practicing and researching in the area of IPR for almost two decades, believes that principles and practices of PR in Europe, emphasising social role of public relations, are more promising for effective PR in the multinational than the American-based PR-as-marketing-tool approach. He, alongside the majority of new PR schools, supports paradigms of PR incoming out of places other than the U.S. Therefore, need and call for the elsewhere theories and concepts was also a factor for a research in international/global PR. Ovaitt (1988, p.5) made an interesting suggestion saying that it was not a popular idea with marketing and advertising experts when they started thinking about internationalisation decades ago and it was not popular with public relations practitioners back to late 1980s. The idea is that what these professionals do for a living might be done on a global basis global in the sense of achieving some significant level of standardisation, not only of what is offered to customers, but also how it is presented and promoted. Public relations as a profession is not necessarily understood and practised in the same manner all around the world. This is not news per se, as several scholars (Sharpe, 1992, Vercic et al., 1996, Taylor, 2000, Rhee, 2002, Valentini, 2007) for many years have underlined that public relations requires a global understanding of cultural differences. Different studies (Kent and Taylor, 1999, Lee, 2005) show that public relations practitioners are increasingly required to be able to communicate with different international publics, no matter the size of the organisation they are working for, or whether it is private or public, including non-profit organisations. After the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Excellence Study yielded a review of normative principles (Grunig, 1992), Vercic et al. (1996) explained the importance of identifying five contextual variables that influence the practice of the normative principles. Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (Vercic et al., 1996) proposed a global theory of public relations that was elaborated by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003a, 2003b, 2009) in their Global Public Relations Handbook and by Sriramesh (2009) in a special issue of PRism. Their global public relations theory attempted to answer the question of whether public relations theory and practice should be unique to each country or culture or whether it should be practiced in the same way everywhere. Authors answered this question by theorising that global public relations should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation (Grunig, 2009). The theoretical framework of Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) has been used to assess the status of public relations in countries around the world. Contextualised studies are the core component of the global public relations concept. As Vercic (2009) reported, international PR practices should represent the best practices anywhere because of their necessary complexities and reach. Global theory is not a positive theory, which describes a type of public relations that currently is practiced everywhere in the world. Research, such as that reported in Sriramesh and Vercic (2003, 2009), does show that there are many idiosyncrasies in public relations practice around the world that reflect cultural differences. It also shows that the one worldwide universal in public relations practice is what is J. Grunig have called the press agentry/publicity model (Grunig et al., 1995)-the least effective of the models. Rather, their global theory is a normative theory that argues that public relations will be most effective throughout most parts of the world (Grunig, 2009, p.2). Emphasising cross-cultural effects on reputation in multinational organizations Wakefield (2007b, 2008) argues that there still is an important distinction between global and domestic public relations practices, and that understanding those differences will contribute to better global practice. More specifically, recent research has also called into questions of need to understand how culture affects public relations. There are numbers of key researches (Grunig et al., 1995) who have written papers specifically on the subject. A similar study was conducted by Neff (1991), who has indicated that economic development is leading public relations firms down a path requiring knowledge of culture and language in addition to public relations. Perhaps one of the most influential recent publications on multiculturalism in public relations education was produced by Sriramesh (Sriramesh, 2002, Sriramesh, 2003). He has also reported that public relations education has not kept pace with the rapi d globalisation that has occurred since 1992 (Sriramesh, 2002). Sriramesh (2009) called for a need for a more thoughtful representation of many of the generic principles of public relations practice to suit the local environment, so that the body of knowledge is more holistic and relevant to global demands. However, there still is a room for an assumption that not all the practitioners require international training and international perspective. RESEARCH / CRITICS: Since the advent of the Internet, it is even more tempting to view PR practice as the same anywhere, and therefore it decreases attempts to produce research or principles that need to view à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“cross-border PR as different (Wakefield, 2007a). Despite the numerous calls for research, reviewed works and studies on global (national) public relations released in the 2000s (see table 1) (Portugal, United States see table) have recorded that this area of research is underrepresented. Despite global trends underlining increased internationalisation, these results can be interpreted to indicate that Researchers have not paid enough attention to the international perspective. An important indicator is the place international public relations occupy in the list of priority research topics. One recent example is a Study of the Priorities for Public Relations Research conducted by Deputy Dean of Media School of Bournemouth University (UK) Tom Watson (Watson, 2008, Watson, 2007)  [1 ]  .He sent 26 public relations topics to a Delphi study panel and the Top Ten PR research topics were identified, however, international perspective was excluded from the list. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield responded critically to Watsons Delphi study: First, I was surprised in finding that the topic fell all the way out of the top ten. After all, arent PR issues and challenges, along with its overall scope of practice, becoming more international with each passing year?(2007a, p. 6) Nonetheless he added: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“There really are no more studies being done on international public relations now than have been done over the course of the last three decades. Those that are being published are increasingly making such statements as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“there is no such thing as local PR anymore, or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“today, everything is global. Well, if this represents what academics and practitioners are thinking, then it would stand to reason that no real different research needs to be done-that ANY PR principles, even if they are all traditionally domestic in nature, would suffice for research or practice anywhere in the world (2007a, p.7). The seminal critique in this area is also by Sriramesh (2009, p.6), who argues: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When scholars think of, and discuss, public relations, the global perspective is often overlooked. Srirameshs (2009) critique of Mackey (Mackey, 2003), who claimed to introduce the various contemporary theories of public relations in the inaugural issue of Prism is also indicative: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The author attempted to review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the changing vistas in public relations theory, there was not a single mention of any advances in global public relations theorising in that piece even though by 2003/that time there were several advances worth reporting'(2009, p.8). Another example is Distasso (2009). Authors surveyed 312 public relations executives and educators to examine how well practitioners and instructors perceive public relations students to be prepared for the practice, the content and value of public relations curricula and, the future of public relations education in the United States. Even though scholar mentioned globalisation as a factor increasingly influencing public relations practice he had not included it in the questionnaires or research questions. Somewhat it contrast are papers from the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium Bledcom, which reflect the diverse and up-to-date research traditions amongst scholars working in the field of public relations both within the USA and Europe (Moss et al., 1997, Newman and Vercic, 2002, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003a, Sriramesh, 2004, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Van Ruler et al., 2008, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2009). These are scholars, who systematically examines the priorities for PR research and determine international agenda These differences in research agenda are reflected/explained, to some degree, in the/by Scholars like Sriramesh, Vercic, Wakefield and others highlighted the important point that an issue of international public relations is not reflected enough in the research questions. International public relations education (IPRE) As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make public relations education more internationally focused and future public relations professionals more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane DiStephano, 1992) / Huthcings et al., 2002 There have been numbers of calls for new public relations curricula aimed at educating staffs that can understand and meet increasing international social, economic and political complexities and challenges. (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, p. 13). The International Association of Universities (1998) supported the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to fulfil its role and maintain excellence. (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 58). Another rationale for an international public relations course is the accelerating pace of societal and technological change today. These cha nges call for adaptations in academic curricula and professional development programs. There were written dozen papers on justification of international public relations education based on research in the different areas. Some went radical claiming that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“any curriculum that excludes international public relations courses is ineffective in addressing student and practitioner needs, particularly in the next century (21 century).(Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994) p.9 Factors what influence the development of IPRE are mostly the same, however they have different interpretations. The need for international courses in public relations is demonstrated further by the growing global recognition of public relations degree programs and education, a phenomenon that Cantor (1984) predicted more than twenty years ago. And indeed, previous investigation has established that the call for internationalisation of public relations education has been there for a long time and comes from both industry and academia sectors (Neff, 1991, Cottone et al., 1985). However, disagreements between practitioners and educators on a blueprint for international public relations education have also been documented (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994). A decade old survey of U.S. public relations educators and practitioners that explored the state of curricula and content in public relations education found that both practitioners and educators perceive need to incorporate courses and cont ent that will prepare future practitioners for the global landscape (Neff et al., 1999). A Public relations is a multidisciplinary area of study and practice that must change as rapidly as the context and society in which it exists (Baskin, 1989, p. 35). As public relations continues to be a globalised profession, curriculum should be updated to reflect the practice. Ten years later similar study has recorded, that having a global perspective and experience with a variety of cultures are necessary but lacking skills for advanced level practitioners (DiStaso et al., 2009, p.269). An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“across national borders somewhat like James Bond. Public relations education at all levels and in both communication and MBA programmes should educate students to practise public relations globally (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). However, not only do students need to be trained and prepared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 69). Sriramesh (2009, p.6) makes a reasonable argument that even textbooks in the US and the UK should contain more global cases and interpretations so as to give their own students a more international and holistic education, thus broadening their horizons. It is indicated that authors of universitys level public relations textbooks have not yet realised the growing importance of international public relations and thus deal marginally with it. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA) has drawn on its international membership to research and recommend standards for public relations education and has established the results of its work in two Gold papers in 1982 and 1990 (IPRA (1982) Gold paper No. 4, A Model for Public Relations Education for Professional Practice, and (1990) Gold Paper No.7, Public Relations Education Recommendations and Standards). (White, 1991) p.184-185 Not much has changed since that time. WAYS: Number of general papers were designed in response to the need for public relations education to produce well-trained, culturally sensitive practitioners (Miller, 1992, Ekachai and Komolsevin, 1998, Burbules and Torres, 2000, Bardhan, 2003, Dickerson, 2005, Tuleja, 2008). With the increasing importance of international communication, some educators had considered creating a course dedicated to international public relations (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, Taylor, 2001). In a special edition of Public Relations Review on developing teaching related materials, Taylor (2001) offered guidance to public relations educators on how to develop an international public relations curriculum because: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“New communication technologies and global communication processes create more frequent international communication (Taylor, 2001, p.2). Nevertheless, some of the Taylors conclusions sounded far too decisive: The most comprehensive way to internationalize the public relations curriculum is to offer a course dedicated to international public relations (p. 74). Creedon and Al-Khaja (2005) analysed how adding cultural competency to the list of skills and competencies required in educational programs presents an opportunity to educate a generation that will accept difference and value a global culture separate from national identity. Then again the study was rather limited the authors conducted a survey of accredited programs to determine whether or not a history course was required of their majors. Another empirical-based study argued that just talking about the importance if IPR in the classroom is not sufficient, students have to be able to live international public relations in order to understand its relevance (Bardhan, 1999, p. 19). An important portion of literature on international public relations education suggests the necessity for students to learn about other countries through immersion. According to Porth (Porth, 1997, Tuleja, 2008) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of education who urge business schools to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“go global and to create stronger ties with the international business and academic communities. More specifically, recent research has also called into question the assumption of studying internationally. For instance, Hutchings et al. (2002, p. 58)suggests that the challenge for the education is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing international concepts to the student. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising PR education because it is difficult to manage even if having resources. Hutchings study is focused on going abroad, even so it may make some contribution to understanding of glo bal consciousness characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence. Arguments about which is the best approach to international public relations education, courses and its numbers, or changing the context with its live experience and observations, largely missed the important point that methods have to be fit for their purposes. For some purposes, this is the best, and in other cases the choice will be this and that. Furthermore, although those approaches rest on very different use of resources and possibilities, they can be complementary in the hands of future research and need to be incompatible. Many studies would benefit from mindfully using each approach for different purposes at different stages of the internationalisation. Fuller discussions of this are to be found in some public relations papers, including (Neff, 1991, Dibrova and Kabanova, 2004, Peterson and Mak, 2006, Chung, 2007/8, Dolby and Rahman, 2008). CHALLENGES/BARRIERS: Authors such as Kalupa and Carroll Bateman (1980) have suggested that public relations educators have failed maintain the currency of the teaching in relation to the practice. On the other hand, Holbrook (1985, 1995) has been one of the most prominent critics of the idea of selecting research topics based on what is of interest to practitioners. He has argued that such an orientation tarnishes the purity of the academic endeavour. Amongst other challenges Bardhan (1999) recorded that educators feel unprepared at present to handle the task effectively and lack of interest among students. Falb (1991, 1992) has claimed that because of putting public relations curriculums in either Mass Communications or Journalism public relations has been inhibited in its growth in academic and professional areas. Similar study was conducted by (Pincus et al., 1994), who argued that communication topics do not rate high in MBA programs: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of public relations topics in MBA programs, the profession will never realize entry to the highest levels of corporate decision making (1994: p.55) . Making an analogy, this statement might be extended by claiming that If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of international public relations concepts in Postgraduate programs, the profession will lack behind present state of research and practice. This statement finds a reflection in recent research as well. Papers like Sriramesh (2002) claim that it is time for educators to integrate experiences from other continents into the PR body of knowledge, thereby building PR curricula that contribute to training truly multicultural PR professionals. CONCLUSION: Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) underlined the compelling need for a text describing and explaining public relations practices and body of knowledge in different parts of the world. Their call for research has been taken up and largely because it proposed a framework, which made it easier to facilitate global research. Thereby, by critically examining the framework scholars in different countries enrich international public relations body of knowledge and provides prove or counter-arguments to the Global theory. Nonetheless, it might be argued that among those five factors, which have been put forward by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003), one is missing professional PR training. In this regard it can be concluded the following. Firstly, such indicator as level of professional training can be considered as a sixth factor influencing practicing public relations in country. Secondly, on the basis of a global concept can be developed a similar concept and subsequently applied to the study of inte rnational public relations education. Thirdly, basing on data provided from the five factors, it allowed to determine the degree of standardization vs. localization of IPR programs and courses and to identify barriers and obstacles. Achieving internationalisation of public relations education is concluded to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be finding employment internationally and benefit from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused public relations education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the demands of rapid international economic, political and social change (Hutchings et al., 2002). Professional education and training are one of the major issues in every country in which public relations is practised. Even the US, where there are hundreds of public relations education are frequently expressed, and senior practitioners rise questions about the value of existing public relations education programmes (White, 1991, p. 184). Sommerness and Beaman (1994) found only few offerings of university courses emphasising international public relations across the United States at that time. However, most recent study has shown that some authors (Hatzitos and Lariscy, 2008) report an increased interest in scholarly research in international public relations and an effort to internationalise the public relations curricula at many U.S. universities. Despite the fact that significant gaps were found between desired outcomes and those actually found in the opinions of both practitioner and educators, certain surveys (Neff et al., 1999) have revealed strong agreement between educator s and practitioners regarding the training, experience and expertise outcomes needed for career development in public relations. Thus, while the goals of public relations education to certain extent seem clear, the means of achieving those goals, including curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, may not be as clear. However, studies such as examining perception, asking whether or not IPR should be emphasised doesnt really contribute anymore as the concept have solidly grounded. There have been dozen papers reporting that call for a development. What more valuable for this particular research is the fact that international public relations education requires to be integrated into global PR perspective. International experiences, approaches and cases must be studied and shared between international academic societies. The literature review recorded a substantial gap in international public relations education research elsewhere than U.S. Therefore there is a need in further researching and describing development in IPRE globally. This particular study will explore perceptions and state of IPR education in two countries the United Kingdom and Russia. Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Introduction The main theme of the dissertation is internationalisation of public relations education. It is quite a broad topic and can be reviewed and discussed from different points of view. In this regard the selected literature first examines international public relations concepts and secondly an impact it has on public relations education. Therefore, literature review has been divided into the following major themes: International public relations (IPR) and International public relations education (IPRE). The chapter will begin by presenting the main debates about international public relations and its concepts alongside with a brief overview of factors influencing it. It will be followed by a section presenting state of research on IPR. The discussion will then move to section two international public relations education, exploring the requisites and challenges for internationalisation. Finally the chapter will summarise the key themes and points identified. The major part of the literature review focuses on contemporary research, defined as 1989-2009. International PR A growing number of publications document the development and challenges of the public relations in every major continent and region of the world (Nally, 1991, Moss et al., 1997, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003b, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Freitag and Stokes, 2009). This research refers term global PR to globalisation of the profession, which is being practises and recognised in more countries throughout the globe, while International PR refers to the planning and implementation of programmes and campaigns carried out abroad or for international audience. Hence international PR education refers to the process of adopting professional training to International PR concepts and demand. Public relations is still relatively new concern for management, even though its modern origins can be traced to the end of the last century (White, 1991). According to (Cutlip, 1994), a key researcher in the history of public relations in the U.S., the first international public relations agency The Hamilton Wright Organization was founded in 1908. International communities of professionals and scholars are increasingly interested in transferring knowledge, experiences, and best practices from national to transnational scenarios. This advancement is generated by the increasing role of public relations which is driven largely by the influence of new information technologies and globalisation (Flodin, 2003). Drawing upon this, DiStaso et al. (2009) discussed the effects of globalisation, that began with the Maastricht Treaty and NAFTAA in 1992, the WTO in 1994 and claiming it had great impact on the public relations industry. According to Szondis (2009, p.115) International public relations is the planned communication activity of a (multinational) organisation, a supra- or international institution or government through interactions in the target country which facilitates the organisation (or government) to achieve its policy or business objectives without harming the interests of the publics. There have been papers which presented international PR to be simply about how to overcome barriers that are created by other cultures, including language, laws or cultural issues, which are often indentified as problems (Wilcox et al., 2001), rather than opportunities or the manifestation of diversity. The most frequently referenced paper which stands against IPR has been Angell (1990) asserted that the variance between local countries was so great as to preclude any possibility of globalisation. A much different study, also highly referenced, has been provided by Pavlik (1987), who as early as the 1980s considered IPR one of the most rapidly growing areas of the profession, and one of the least understood. The problem with defining difference between domestically and internationally done public relations is that there is not enough research or critical assessment. While basic principles do not change, the way they are carried out from culture to culture and country to country, and the attitudes and values embedded within those different cultures or countries, are different (Wakefield, 2007b). A similar study was conducted by Botan (1992, p. 157), who argued that international public relations is always intercultural. The existing public relations body of knowledge, and public relations curricula around the world, have a U.S. bias (Sriramesh, 2002). U.S. paradigm, however, strikes with the idea of that European or non-U.S. perceptions of public relations become more of value in the twenty first century. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield (2007b), who have been practicing and researching in the area of IPR for almost two decades, believes that principles and practices of PR in Europe, emphasising social role of public relations, are more promising for effective PR in the multinational than the American-based PR-as-marketing-tool approach. He, alongside the majority of new PR schools, supports paradigms of PR incoming out of places other than the U.S. Therefore, need and call for the elsewhere theories and concepts was also a factor for a research in international/global PR. Ovaitt (1988, p.5) made an interesting suggestion saying that it was not a popular idea with marketing and advertising experts when they started thinking about internationalisation decades ago and it was not popular with public relations practitioners back to late 1980s. The idea is that what these professionals do for a living might be done on a global basis global in the sense of achieving some significant level of standardisation, not only of what is offered to customers, but also how it is presented and promoted. Public relations as a profession is not necessarily understood and practised in the same manner all around the world. This is not news per se, as several scholars (Sharpe, 1992, Vercic et al., 1996, Taylor, 2000, Rhee, 2002, Valentini, 2007) for many years have underlined that public relations requires a global understanding of cultural differences. Different studies (Kent and Taylor, 1999, Lee, 2005) show that public relations practitioners are increasingly required to be able to communicate with different international publics, no matter the size of the organisation they are working for, or whether it is private or public, including non-profit organisations. After the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Excellence Study yielded a review of normative principles (Grunig, 1992), Vercic et al. (1996) explained the importance of identifying five contextual variables that influence the practice of the normative principles. Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (Vercic et al., 1996) proposed a global theory of public relations that was elaborated by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003a, 2003b, 2009) in their Global Public Relations Handbook and by Sriramesh (2009) in a special issue of PRism. Their global public relations theory attempted to answer the question of whether public relations theory and practice should be unique to each country or culture or whether it should be practiced in the same way everywhere. Authors answered this question by theorising that global public relations should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation (Grunig, 2009). The theoretical framework of Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) has been used to assess the status of public relations in countries around the world. Contextualised studies are the core component of the global public relations concept. As Vercic (2009) reported, international PR practices should represent the best practices anywhere because of their necessary complexities and reach. Global theory is not a positive theory, which describes a type of public relations that currently is practiced everywhere in the world. Research, such as that reported in Sriramesh and Vercic (2003, 2009), does show that there are many idiosyncrasies in public relations practice around the world that reflect cultural differences. It also shows that the one worldwide universal in public relations practice is what is J. Grunig have called the press agentry/publicity model (Grunig et al., 1995)-the least effective of the models. Rather, their global theory is a normative theory that argues that public relations will be most effective throughout most parts of the world (Grunig, 2009, p.2). Emphasising cross-cultural effects on reputation in multinational organizations Wakefield (2007b, 2008) argues that there still is an important distinction between global and domestic public relations practices, and that understanding those differences will contribute to better global practice. More specifically, recent research has also called into questions of need to understand how culture affects public relations. There are numbers of key researches (Grunig et al., 1995) who have written papers specifically on the subject. A similar study was conducted by Neff (1991), who has indicated that economic development is leading public relations firms down a path requiring knowledge of culture and language in addition to public relations. Perhaps one of the most influential recent publications on multiculturalism in public relations education was produced by Sriramesh (Sriramesh, 2002, Sriramesh, 2003). He has also reported that public relations education has not kept pace with the rapi d globalisation that has occurred since 1992 (Sriramesh, 2002). Sriramesh (2009) called for a need for a more thoughtful representation of many of the generic principles of public relations practice to suit the local environment, so that the body of knowledge is more holistic and relevant to global demands. However, there still is a room for an assumption that not all the practitioners require international training and international perspective. RESEARCH / CRITICS: Since the advent of the Internet, it is even more tempting to view PR practice as the same anywhere, and therefore it decreases attempts to produce research or principles that need to view à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“cross-border PR as different (Wakefield, 2007a). Despite the numerous calls for research, reviewed works and studies on global (national) public relations released in the 2000s (see table 1) (Portugal, United States see table) have recorded that this area of research is underrepresented. Despite global trends underlining increased internationalisation, these results can be interpreted to indicate that Researchers have not paid enough attention to the international perspective. An important indicator is the place international public relations occupy in the list of priority research topics. One recent example is a Study of the Priorities for Public Relations Research conducted by Deputy Dean of Media School of Bournemouth University (UK) Tom Watson (Watson, 2008, Watson, 2007)  [1 ]  .He sent 26 public relations topics to a Delphi study panel and the Top Ten PR research topics were identified, however, international perspective was excluded from the list. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield responded critically to Watsons Delphi study: First, I was surprised in finding that the topic fell all the way out of the top ten. After all, arent PR issues and challenges, along with its overall scope of practice, becoming more international with each passing year?(2007a, p. 6) Nonetheless he added: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“There really are no more studies being done on international public relations now than have been done over the course of the last three decades. Those that are being published are increasingly making such statements as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“there is no such thing as local PR anymore, or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“today, everything is global. Well, if this represents what academics and practitioners are thinking, then it would stand to reason that no real different research needs to be done-that ANY PR principles, even if they are all traditionally domestic in nature, would suffice for research or practice anywhere in the world (2007a, p.7). The seminal critique in this area is also by Sriramesh (2009, p.6), who argues: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When scholars think of, and discuss, public relations, the global perspective is often overlooked. Srirameshs (2009) critique of Mackey (Mackey, 2003), who claimed to introduce the various contemporary theories of public relations in the inaugural issue of Prism is also indicative: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The author attempted to review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the changing vistas in public relations theory, there was not a single mention of any advances in global public relations theorising in that piece even though by 2003/that time there were several advances worth reporting'(2009, p.8). Another example is Distasso (2009). Authors surveyed 312 public relations executives and educators to examine how well practitioners and instructors perceive public relations students to be prepared for the practice, the content and value of public relations curricula and, the future of public relations education in the United States. Even though scholar mentioned globalisation as a factor increasingly influencing public relations practice he had not included it in the questionnaires or research questions. Somewhat it contrast are papers from the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium Bledcom, which reflect the diverse and up-to-date research traditions amongst scholars working in the field of public relations both within the USA and Europe (Moss et al., 1997, Newman and Vercic, 2002, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003a, Sriramesh, 2004, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Van Ruler et al., 2008, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2009). These are scholars, who systematically examines the priorities for PR research and determine international agenda These differences in research agenda are reflected/explained, to some degree, in the/by Scholars like Sriramesh, Vercic, Wakefield and others highlighted the important point that an issue of international public relations is not reflected enough in the research questions. International public relations education (IPRE) As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make public relations education more internationally focused and future public relations professionals more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane DiStephano, 1992) / Huthcings et al., 2002 There have been numbers of calls for new public relations curricula aimed at educating staffs that can understand and meet increasing international social, economic and political complexities and challenges. (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, p. 13). The International Association of Universities (1998) supported the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to fulfil its role and maintain excellence. (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 58). Another rationale for an international public relations course is the accelerating pace of societal and technological change today. These cha nges call for adaptations in academic curricula and professional development programs. There were written dozen papers on justification of international public relations education based on research in the different areas. Some went radical claiming that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“any curriculum that excludes international public relations courses is ineffective in addressing student and practitioner needs, particularly in the next century (21 century).(Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994) p.9 Factors what influence the development of IPRE are mostly the same, however they have different interpretations. The need for international courses in public relations is demonstrated further by the growing global recognition of public relations degree programs and education, a phenomenon that Cantor (1984) predicted more than twenty years ago. And indeed, previous investigation has established that the call for internationalisation of public relations education has been there for a long time and comes from both industry and academia sectors (Neff, 1991, Cottone et al., 1985). However, disagreements between practitioners and educators on a blueprint for international public relations education have also been documented (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994). A decade old survey of U.S. public relations educators and practitioners that explored the state of curricula and content in public relations education found that both practitioners and educators perceive need to incorporate courses and cont ent that will prepare future practitioners for the global landscape (Neff et al., 1999). A Public relations is a multidisciplinary area of study and practice that must change as rapidly as the context and society in which it exists (Baskin, 1989, p. 35). As public relations continues to be a globalised profession, curriculum should be updated to reflect the practice. Ten years later similar study has recorded, that having a global perspective and experience with a variety of cultures are necessary but lacking skills for advanced level practitioners (DiStaso et al., 2009, p.269). An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“across national borders somewhat like James Bond. Public relations education at all levels and in both communication and MBA programmes should educate students to practise public relations globally (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). However, not only do students need to be trained and prepared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 69). Sriramesh (2009, p.6) makes a reasonable argument that even textbooks in the US and the UK should contain more global cases and interpretations so as to give their own students a more international and holistic education, thus broadening their horizons. It is indicated that authors of universitys level public relations textbooks have not yet realised the growing importance of international public relations and thus deal marginally with it. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA) has drawn on its international membership to research and recommend standards for public relations education and has established the results of its work in two Gold papers in 1982 and 1990 (IPRA (1982) Gold paper No. 4, A Model for Public Relations Education for Professional Practice, and (1990) Gold Paper No.7, Public Relations Education Recommendations and Standards). (White, 1991) p.184-185 Not much has changed since that time. WAYS: Number of general papers were designed in response to the need for public relations education to produce well-trained, culturally sensitive practitioners (Miller, 1992, Ekachai and Komolsevin, 1998, Burbules and Torres, 2000, Bardhan, 2003, Dickerson, 2005, Tuleja, 2008). With the increasing importance of international communication, some educators had considered creating a course dedicated to international public relations (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, Taylor, 2001). In a special edition of Public Relations Review on developing teaching related materials, Taylor (2001) offered guidance to public relations educators on how to develop an international public relations curriculum because: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“New communication technologies and global communication processes create more frequent international communication (Taylor, 2001, p.2). Nevertheless, some of the Taylors conclusions sounded far too decisive: The most comprehensive way to internationalize the public relations curriculum is to offer a course dedicated to international public relations (p. 74). Creedon and Al-Khaja (2005) analysed how adding cultural competency to the list of skills and competencies required in educational programs presents an opportunity to educate a generation that will accept difference and value a global culture separate from national identity. Then again the study was rather limited the authors conducted a survey of accredited programs to determine whether or not a history course was required of their majors. Another empirical-based study argued that just talking about the importance if IPR in the classroom is not sufficient, students have to be able to live international public relations in order to understand its relevance (Bardhan, 1999, p. 19). An important portion of literature on international public relations education suggests the necessity for students to learn about other countries through immersion. According to Porth (Porth, 1997, Tuleja, 2008) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of education who urge business schools to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“go global and to create stronger ties with the international business and academic communities. More specifically, recent research has also called into question the assumption of studying internationally. For instance, Hutchings et al. (2002, p. 58)suggests that the challenge for the education is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing international concepts to the student. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising PR education because it is difficult to manage even if having resources. Hutchings study is focused on going abroad, even so it may make some contribution to understanding of glo bal consciousness characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence. Arguments about which is the best approach to international public relations education, courses and its numbers, or changing the context with its live experience and observations, largely missed the important point that methods have to be fit for their purposes. For some purposes, this is the best, and in other cases the choice will be this and that. Furthermore, although those approaches rest on very different use of resources and possibilities, they can be complementary in the hands of future research and need to be incompatible. Many studies would benefit from mindfully using each approach for different purposes at different stages of the internationalisation. Fuller discussions of this are to be found in some public relations papers, including (Neff, 1991, Dibrova and Kabanova, 2004, Peterson and Mak, 2006, Chung, 2007/8, Dolby and Rahman, 2008). CHALLENGES/BARRIERS: Authors such as Kalupa and Carroll Bateman (1980) have suggested that public relations educators have failed maintain the currency of the teaching in relation to the practice. On the other hand, Holbrook (1985, 1995) has been one of the most prominent critics of the idea of selecting research topics based on what is of interest to practitioners. He has argued that such an orientation tarnishes the purity of the academic endeavour. Amongst other challenges Bardhan (1999) recorded that educators feel unprepared at present to handle the task effectively and lack of interest among students. Falb (1991, 1992) has claimed that because of putting public relations curriculums in either Mass Communications or Journalism public relations has been inhibited in its growth in academic and professional areas. Similar study was conducted by (Pincus et al., 1994), who argued that communication topics do not rate high in MBA programs: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of public relations topics in MBA programs, the profession will never realize entry to the highest levels of corporate decision making (1994: p.55) . Making an analogy, this statement might be extended by claiming that If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of international public relations concepts in Postgraduate programs, the profession will lack behind present state of research and practice. This statement finds a reflection in recent research as well. Papers like Sriramesh (2002) claim that it is time for educators to integrate experiences from other continents into the PR body of knowledge, thereby building PR curricula that contribute to training truly multicultural PR professionals. CONCLUSION: Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) underlined the compelling need for a text describing and explaining public relations practices and body of knowledge in different parts of the world. Their call for research has been taken up and largely because it proposed a framework, which made it easier to facilitate global research. Thereby, by critically examining the framework scholars in different countries enrich international public relations body of knowledge and provides prove or counter-arguments to the Global theory. Nonetheless, it might be argued that among those five factors, which have been put forward by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003), one is missing professional PR training. In this regard it can be concluded the following. Firstly, such indicator as level of professional training can be considered as a sixth factor influencing practicing public relations in country. Secondly, on the basis of a global concept can be developed a similar concept and subsequently applied to the study of inte rnational public relations education. Thirdly, basing on data provided from the five factors, it allowed to determine the degree of standardization vs. localization of IPR programs and courses and to identify barriers and obstacles. Achieving internationalisation of public relations education is concluded to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be finding employment internationally and benefit from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused public relations education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the demands of rapid international economic, political and social change (Hutchings et al., 2002). Professional education and training are one of the major issues in every country in which public relations is practised. Even the US, where there are hundreds of public relations education are frequently expressed, and senior practitioners rise questions about the value of existing public relations education programmes (White, 1991, p. 184). Sommerness and Beaman (1994) found only few offerings of university courses emphasising international public relations across the United States at that time. However, most recent study has shown that some authors (Hatzitos and Lariscy, 2008) report an increased interest in scholarly research in international public relations and an effort to internationalise the public relations curricula at many U.S. universities. Despite the fact that significant gaps were found between desired outcomes and those actually found in the opinions of both practitioner and educators, certain surveys (Neff et al., 1999) have revealed strong agreement between educator s and practitioners regarding the training, experience and expertise outcomes needed for career development in public relations. Thus, while the goals of public relations education to certain extent seem clear, the means of achieving those goals, including curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, may not be as clear. However, studies such as examining perception, asking whether or not IPR should be emphasised doesnt really contribute anymore as the concept have solidly grounded. There have been dozen papers reporting that call for a development. What more valuable for this particular research is the fact that international public relations education requires to be integrated into global PR perspective. International experiences, approaches and cases must be studied and shared between international academic societies. The literature review recorded a substantial gap in international public relations education research elsewhere than U.S. Therefore there is a need in further researching and describing development in IPRE globally. This particular study will explore perceptions and state of IPR education in two countries the United Kingdom and Russia.